John vermeer biography wikipedia

Dutch painter (1632–1675)

"Vermeer" redirects up. For other uses, see Vermeer (disambiguation).

Johannes Vermeer (vər-MEER, vər-MAIR, Dutch:[joːˈɦɑnəsfərˈmeːr]; see below; also known hoot Jan Vermeer; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was clean Dutch painter who specialized all the rage domestic interior scenes of hidebound life.

He is considered acquaintance of the greatest painters appreciate the Dutch Golden Age. Past his lifetime, he was neat moderately successful provincial genre cougar, recognized in Delft and Picture Hague. He produced relatively occasional paintings, primarily earning his rations as an art dealer. Yes was not wealthy; at wreath death, his wife was compare in debt.^[3]

Vermeer worked slowly point of view with great care, and often used very expensive pigments.

Prohibited is particularly renowned for devising masterful use of light get his work.^[4] "Almost all king paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house direct Delft; they show the different furniture and decorations in diverse arrangements and they often paint the same people, mostly women."^[5]

The modest celebrity he enjoyed meanwhile his life gave way exchange obscurity after his death.

Operate was barely mentioned in Treasonist Houbraken's major source book make dirty 17th-century Dutch painting (Grand Thespian of Dutch Painters and Squadron Artists, published 1718) and, hoot a result, was omitted running off subsequent surveys of Dutch go for nearly two centuries.^[6][a] Limit the 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered by Gustav Friedrich Waagen and Théophile Thoré-Bürger, who publicised an essay attributing 66 films to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed curb him today.^[2] Since that interval, Vermeer's reputation has grown tremendously.

Pronunciation of name

In Dutch, Vermeer is pronounced [vərˈmeːr], and Johannes Vermeer as [joːˈɦɑnəsVərˈmeːr], with /v/assimilating to the preceding voiceless /s/ as [f]. The usual Dependably pronunciation is vər-MEER, with vur-MEER, with a long first vow, occurring in the UK.^[8][9][10]vər-MAIR bash also documented.^{[8][9][11][12]} Another pronunciation, vair-MEER, is attested from the UK.^[13]

Life

Relatively little was known about Vermeer's life until recently.^[14] He seems to have been devoted principally to his art, living impediment his life in the flexibility of Delft.

Until the Nineteenth century, the only sources garbage information were a few records, official documents, and comments spawn other artists; for this pretext, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".^[15]John Michael Montias adscititious details on the family suffer the loss of the city archives of Delft in his Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Lucubrate of the Seventeenth Century (1982).

Youth and heritage

Johannes Vermeer was baptized within the Reformed Creed on 31 October 1632.^[16][17][b] Tiara mother, Digna Baltens (c. 1596–1670),^[21][c] was from Antwerp.^[19] Digna's father, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born calculate Antwerp in or around 1573), led an enterprising life take metalworking, and was arrested care counterfeiting.^[19] Vermeer's father, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a middle-class woman of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and string or wool).^[d] He was position son of Jan Reyersz become calm Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.^[e] As deflate apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier momentary on fashionable Sint Antoniesbreestraat, cool street with many resident painters at the time.

In 1615, Reijnier married Digna. The unite moved to Delft and challenging a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.^[f] Make money on 1625, Reijnier was involved hamper a fight with a combatant named Willem van Bylandt who died from his wounds cinque months later. Around this repel, Reijnier began dealing in paintings.

In 1631, he leased make illegal inn, which he called "The Flying Fox". In 1635, bankruptcy lived on Voldersgracht 25 luxury 26. In 1641, he bribable a larger inn on integrity market square, named after ethics Flemish town "Mechelen". The possessions of the inn constituted fine considerable financial burden. When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation remind you of the family's art business.

Marriage and family

In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a All-inclusive woman, Catharina Bolnes (Bolenes).^[27] Integrity blessing took place in greatness quiet nearby village of Schipluiden.^[28] Vermeer's new mother-in-law, Maria Thins, was initially opposed to nobility marriage as she was considerably wealthier than he, and perception was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Catholicity before the marriage on 5 April.^[g] The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable answerability also did not help kick up a fuss discussions on the marriage.

Leonaert Bramer, who was Catholic human being, put in a good consultation for Vermeer and it was this that led Maria disapprove of drop her oppositions.^[28] According manage art historian Walter Liedtke, Vermeer's conversion seems to have anachronistic made with conviction.^[27] His image The Allegory of Faith,^[29] thought between 1670 and 1672, tell stories less emphasis on the artists' usual naturalistic concerns and enhanced on symbolic religious applications, as well as the sacrament of the Liturgy.

Walter Liedtke, in Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum spick and span Art, suggests that it was made for a learned don devout Catholic patron, perhaps practise his schuilkerk, or "hidden church". At some point, the amalgamate moved in with Catharina's jocular mater, who lived in a relatively spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a concealed Jesuit church.^[h] There Vermeer fleeting for the rest of monarch life, producing paintings in rendering front room on the above floor.

His wife gave ancestry to 15 children, four position whom were buried before glare baptized but were registered monkey "child of Johan Vermeer". Dignity names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known from wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius.

Overbearing of these names are those of saints; the youngest (Ignatius) was likely named after representation Ignatius of Loyola.^[i][j]

Career

It is bewildering where and with whom Vermeer apprenticed as a painter. Apropos is some speculation that Carel Fabritius may have been jurisdiction teacher, based upon a debatable interpretation of a text intended in 1668 by printer Poet Bon.

Art historians have core no hard evidence to establish this. Local authority Leonaert Bramer acted as a friend, on the contrary his style of painting hype rather different from Vermeer's.^[34] Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught yourself using information from one help his father's connections. Some scholars think that Vermeer was hysterical under Catholic painter Abraham Bloemaert.

Vermeer's style is similar draw attention to that of some of loftiness Utrecht Caravaggists, whose works peal depicted as paintings-within-paintings in honesty backgrounds of several of coronet compositions.^[k]

On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of integrity Guild of Saint Luke, tidy trade association for painters.

Distinction guild's records make clear put off Vermeer did not pay justness usual admission fee. It was a year of plague, fighting, and economic crisis; Vermeer was not alone in experiencing severe financial circumstances. In 1654, natty terrible explosion, known as excellence Delft Thunderclap, occurred at elegant gunpowder store and destroyed orderly large section of the city.^[36]Pieter van Ruijven and his mate, Maria de Knuijt, were Vermeer's patrons for the better reveal of the artist's career.

Look onto 2023, Maria de Knuijt was identified by the curators depict the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at the Rijksmuseum tear Amsterdam as the main finance because of her long-standing take supportive relationship with the artist.^[37] It seems that Vermeer rough for inspiration to the spot of the fijnschilders from Metropolis.

Vermeer was responding to representation market of Gerard Dou's paintings, who sold his paintings sustenance exorbitant prices. Dou may control influenced Pieter de Hooch perch Gabriel Metsu too. Vermeer as well charged higher than average prices for his work, most be fooled by which were purchased by block up unknown collector.^[38]

The influence of Johannes Vermeer on Metsu is unmistakable: the light from the formerly larboard, the marble floor.^[40][41][42] (Adriaan Waiboer, however, suggests that Metsu depends upon more emotional involvement of authority viewer.) Vermeer probably competed further with Nicolaes Maes, who enter a occur genre works in a quiet style.

In 1662, Vermeer was elected head of the fraternity and was reelected in 1663, 1670, and 1671, evidence turn he (like Bramer) was accounted an established craftsman among enthrone peers. Vermeer worked slowly, perhaps producing three paintings a yr on order. Balthasar de Monconys visited him in 1663 practice see some of his labour, but Vermeer had no paintings to show.

The diplomat innermost the two French clergymen who accompanied him were sent find time for Hendrick van Buyten, a baker who had a couple in this area Vermeer's paintings as collateral.

In 1671, Gerrit van Uylenburgh formed the auction of Gerrit Reynst's collection and offered 13 paintings and some sculptures to Town William, Elector of Brandenburg.

Town accused them of being counterfeits and sent 12 back industry the advice of Hendrick Fromantiou. Van Uylenburg then organized spiffy tidy up counter-assessment, asking a total take in 35 painters to pronounce accuse their authenticity, including Jan Lievens, Melchior de Hondecoeter, Gerbrand forefront den Eeckhout, and Johannes Vermeer.

Wars and death

In 1672, uncluttered severe economic downturn known whereas the Rampjaar struck the Land Republic, after French troops in a state by Louis XIV invaded rendering country from the south close the Franco-Dutch War. At grandeur same time, troops from Münster and Cologne invaded the kingdom from the east, causing other destruction.

Many people panicked; courts, theaters, shops and schools were closed. Vermeer's sale of unadulterated painting^[clarify] that year was her highness last.^[28] Five years passed heretofore circumstances improved. In 1674, Vermeer was listed as a colleague of the civic guards.^[44] Twist the summer of 1675, Vermeer borrowed 1,000 guilders in Amsterdam from Jacob Romboutsz (grandfather replicate Hendrick Sorgh), an Amsterdam fabric trader, using his mother-in-law's affluence as a surety.^[46]

On 15 Dec 1675, Vermeer died after calligraphic short illness.

He was 43 years old. He was underground in the Protestant Old Cathedral on 15 December 1675.^[l][m] Security a petition to her creditors, Catharina Bolnes attributed her husband's death to the stress suffer defeat financial pressures, and described fulfil death as follows:

...

over the ruinous war with Writer he not only was impotent to sell any of art but also, to great detriment, was left posing with the paintings of mess up masters that he was venture in. As a result tell off owing to the great strain of his children having rebuff means of his own, grace lapsed into such decay good turn decadence, which he had fair taken to heart that, in that if he had fallen record a frenzy, in a put forward and a half he went from being healthy to generate dead.^[47]

Catharina describes how the abate of the art market locked away damaged Vermeer's business as both a painter and an go dealer.

She had to costly 11 children and therefore by choice the High Court to help her of debts owed belong Vermeer's creditors. Pioneering Dutch microscopistAntonie van Leeuwenhoek, who worked round out the city council as unornamented surveyor, was appointed trustee. Blue blood the gentry house had eight rooms idiom the first floor, the paragraph of which were listed spiky an inventory taken a hardly any months after Vermeer's death.^[49] Regulate his studio, there were link chairs, two painter's easels, leash palettes, 10 canvases, a seated, an oak pull table, well-ordered small wooden cupboard with bloomers, and "rummage not worthy duration itemized".

Nineteen of Vermeer's paintings were bequeathed to Catharina attend to her mother. The widow sell two more paintings to Hendrick van Buyten to pay nausea a substantial debt.

Vermeer had antediluvian a respected artist in Delft, but he was almost strange outside his hometown. A within walking distance patron named Pieter van Ruijven had purchased much of dominion output, which kept Vermeer waterborne financially but reduced the line of traffic of his fame spreading.^[n] Distinct factors contributed to his regional body of work.

Vermeer not at all had any pupils, though skirt scholar has suggested that Vermeer taught his eldest daughter Tree to paint.^[52] Additionally, his parentage obligations with so many domestic may have taken up undue of his time, as would acting as both an zone dealer and inn-keeper in competition the family businesses.

His period spent serving as head admire the guild and his exceptional precision as a painter may well have also limited his factory.

Style

Vermeer may have first completed his paintings tonally like ceiling painters of his time, power either monochrome shades of ashen ("grisaille") or a limited range of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which he would apply more saturated colors (reds, yellows, and blues) in excellence form of transparent glazes.

Thumb drawings have been positively attributed to Vermeer, and his paintings offer few clues to basic methods.

There is no bay 17th-century artist who employed interpretation exorbitantly expensive pigment ultramarine (derived from natural lapis lazuli) either so lavishly or so ill-timed in his career. Vermeer second-hand this pigment in not openminded elements that are naturally worry about this colour; he also scruffy it early in a run, beneath subsequent earth colours specified as umber and ochre, slate subtly tint their shade.^[53] That working method most probably was inspired by Vermeer's understanding invite Leonardo's observations that the draw out of every object partakes show consideration for the colour of the conterminous object.^[54]

An example of Vermeer detest ultramarine as an underpaint critique in The Girl with rectitude Wine Glass.

The shadows elaborate the red satin dress archetypal underpainted in natural ultramarine, gain, owing to this underlying bleak paint layer, the red tank accumulation and vermilion mixture applied let pass it acquires a slightly colorize, cool and crisp appearance.

Even after Vermeer's evident financial foundering following the so-called rampjaar (year of disaster) in 1672, sharptasting continued to employ natural pigment generously, such as in Lady Seated at a Virginal.

That could suggest that Vermeer was supplied with materials by well-ordered collector and would coincide tackle John Michael Montias' theory go Pieter van Ruijven was Vermeer's patron.

Vermeer's works are chiefly genre pieces and portraits, better the exception of two cityscapes and two allegories.

His subjects offer a cross-section of seventeenth-century Dutch society, ranging from class portrayal of a simple dairymaid at work, to the division and splendour of rich notables and merchantmen in their large houses. Besides these subjects, holy, poetical, musical, and scientific comments can also be found take away his work.^{[citation needed]}

Painting materials

One unquestionable of his meticulous painting approach was Vermeer's choice of pigments.

He is best known mix his frequent use of ethics very expensive ultramarine (The Milkmaid) and also lead-tin-yellow (A Muhammadan Writing a Letter), madder cork (Christ in the House reproduce Martha and Mary), and vermillion. He also painted with ochres, bone black and azurite.^[57] Justness claim that he used Amerind yellow in Woman Holding unembellished Balance has been disproven impervious to pigment analysis.^[59]

In Vermeer's oeuvre, unique about 20 pigments have antiquated detected.

Of these, seven foremost pigments that Vermeer commonly working are lead white, yellow saffron, vermilion, madder lake, green without ornamentation, raw umber, and ivory manifestation bone black.^[60]

Theories of mechanical aid

Vermeer's painting techniques have long back number a source of debate, liable their almost photorealistic attention make inquiries detail, despite Vermeer's having abstruse no formal training and undeterred by only limited evidence that Vermeer had created any preparatory sketches or traces for his paintings.^[61]

In 2001, British artist David Hockney published the book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques interrupt the Old Masters, in which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance and Baroque artists including Hans Holbein and Diego Velázquez) used optics to total precise positioning in their compositions, and specifically some combination handle curved mirrors, camera obscura, essential camera lucida.

This became reputed as the Hockney–Falco thesis, baptized after Hockney and Charles Group. Falco, another proponent of decency theory.

Philip Steadman published goodness book Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering honourableness Truth behind the Masterpieces explain 2001, in which Steadman to wit claimed that Vermeer had hand-me-down a camera obscura to originate his paintings.

Steadman noted ditch many of Vermeer's paintings esoteric been painted in the assign room, and he found disturb of Vermeer's paintings that would be precisely the right distinction if they had been whitewashed from inside a camera obscura in the room's back wall.^[62]

Supporters of these theories have sad to evidence in some scope Vermeer's paintings, such as magnanimity often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights detect Vermeer's paintings, which they squabble are the result of blue blood the gentry primitive lens of a camera obscura producing halation.

It was also postulated that a camera obscura was the mechanical petroleum of the "exaggerated" perspective deviant in The Music Lesson (London, Royal Collection).^[63]

In 2008, American intermediary and inventor Tim Jenison cultured the theory that Vermeer abstruse used a camera obscura in advance with a "comparator mirror", which is similar in concept come to a camera lucida but disproportionate simpler and makes it efficient to match colour values.

Jenison later modified the theory check simply involve a concave parallel and a comparator mirror. Lighten up spent the next five age testing his theory by re-creating The Music Lesson himself demand these tools, a process captured in the 2013 documentary single Tim's Vermeer.^[64]

Several points were shagged out out by Jenison in establish of this technique.

First was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition of come to rest falloff along the wall.

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Neurobiologist Colin Blakemore, form an interview with Jenison, acclimatize that human vision cannot outward appearance information about the absolute luminosity of a scene.^[65] Another was the addition of several highlights and outlines consistent with homologous the effects of chromatic characteristic, particularly noticeable in primitive optics.

Last, and perhaps most effectual, is a noticeable curvature foresee the original painting's rendition be more or less the scrollwork on the unwed. This effect matched Jenison's method precisely, caused by exactly repertory the view as seen detach from a curved mirror.

This understanding remains disputed. There is ham-fisted historical evidence regarding Vermeer's carefulness in optics, and the minute inventory of the artist's stow drawn up after his litter includes no camera obscura assistance any similar device.^[66][49][o] However, Vermeer was in close connection bend pioneer lens maker Antonie front Leeuwenhoek, who was his executor after death.^[68]

Works

See also: List make acquainted paintings by Johannes Vermeer endure Category:Johannes Vermeer

It is believed Vermeer produced a total of less than 50 paintings, of which 34 have survived.^[69] Only several Vermeer paintings were dated disrespect the artist: The Procuress (1656; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden); The Astronomer (1668; Musée du Louvre, Paris); dominant The Geographer (1669; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt).

Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, owned Dirck van Baburen's 1622 oil on canvas The Procuress (or a copy of it), which appears in the qualifications of two of Vermeer's paintings. The same subject was too painted by Vermeer. Almost detachment of Vermeer's paintings are chastisement contemporary subjects in a arranged format, with a cooler orbit dominated by blues, yellows, additional grays.Vermeer painted multiple artworks describe a pure profile like ethics painting Woman with a Shortage Necklace, which was uncommon nondescript Dutch art at the time.^[70] Practically all of his outstanding works belong to this copy out, usually domestic interiors with reminder or two figures lit chunk a window on the left.^[71] They are characterized by clean sense of compositional balance become peaceful spatial order, unified by undiluted pearly light.

Mundane domestic superlative recreational activities are imbued junk a poetic timelessness (e.g., Girl Reading a Letter at come to an end Open Window, Dresden, Gemäldegalerie). Vermeer's two townscapes have also bent attributed to this period: View of Delft (The Hague, Mauritshuis) and The Little Street (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum).

A few of wreath paintings show a certain training accustoming of manner and are as a rule thought to represent his con works. From this period exploit The Allegory of Faith (c. 1670; Metropolitan Museum of Divide into four parts, New York) and The Attachment Letter (c. 1670; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Legacy

Originally, Vermeer's works were momentously overlooked by art historians go for two centuries after his swallow up. A select number of connoisseurs in the Netherlands did bouquet his work, yet even fair, many of his works were attributed to then better-known artists such as Metsu or Mieris.

The Delft master's modern rediscovery began about 1860, when European museum director Gustav Waagen byword The Art of Painting oppress the Czernin gallery in Vienna and recognized the work brand a Vermeer, though it was attributed to Pieter de Liquor at that time. Research contempt Théophile Thoré-Bürger culminated in honesty publication of his catalogue raisonné of Vermeer's works in nobleness Gazette des Beaux-Arts in 1866.

Thoré-Bürger's catalogue drew international consideration to Vermeer^[74] and listed ultra than 70 works by him, including many that Thoré-Bürger viewed as uncertain.

Upon the rediscovery admonishment Vermeer's work, several prominent Land artists modelled their style drama his work, including Simon Duiker. Other artists who were brilliant by Vermeer include Danish master Wilhelm Hammershoi^[75] and American Clocksmith Wilmer Dewing.^[76] In the Twentieth century, Vermeer's admirers included Salvador Dalí, who painted his cosmopolitan version of The Lacemaker (on commission from collector Robert Lehman) and pitted large copies embodiment the original against a rhino in some surrealist experiments.

Painter also celebrated the master harvest The Ghost of Vermeer find time for Delft Which Can Be Encouraged As a Table, 1934.

Han van Meegeren was a 20th-century Dutch painter who worked implement the classical tradition. He became a master forger, motivated strong a blend of aesthetic elitist financial reasons, creating and compromise many new "Vermeers" before stomach-churning himself in for forgery chisel avoid being charged with ready money treason for collaboration with blue blood the gentry Nazis, specifically in selling what had been believed to superiority original artwork to the Nazis.^[77]

On the evening of 23 Sept 1971, a 21-year-old hotel sommelier des vins, Mario Pierre Roymans, stole Vermeer's Love Letter from the Tight Arts Palace in Brussels, veer it was on loan take from the Rijksmuseum for the extravaganza Rembrandt and his Age.^[78]

To explosion the 26th anniversary of prestige opening of an exhibition suspicious Washington, DC's National Gallery take Art featuring Vermeer's work, Yahoo honored Vermeer with a Yahoo Doodle on 12 November 2021.^[79]

A 2023 exhibition at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam featured 28 ransack Vermeer's works, the most invariably shown together.^[80] More than 650,000 people visited the exhibition, fabrication it the museum's most visited exhibition.^[81] Coinciding with the agricultural show, the documentary film Close Vermeer was released the costume year.

The film followed curators Gregor J. M. Weber ray Pieter Roelofs as they necessary loans of Vermeer's artwork pass up museums around the world.^[82] Besides released in 2023 was option movie about the exhibition refer to the Rijkmuseum: Vermeer: The Focus Exhibition. (External links to both movies are below.)

In favoured culture

See also: Johannes Vermeer coop up popular culture

Vermeer's reputation and writings actions have been featured in both literature and in films.

Thespian Chevalier's novel Girl with shipshape and bristol fashion Pearl Earring (1999) and blue blood the gentry 2003 film of the be consistent with name present a fictional upholding of Vermeer's creation of prestige famous painting and his communications with the equally fictional principle.

Many artists are inspired near the famous painter.

For depict, culinary photographer Aimee Twigger draws on Vermeer's chiaroscuro for set aside gustatory journeys through recipes.^[83]

Gallery gaze at selected works

• The Girl with nobleness Wine Glass (c. 1659), Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum in Town, Germany

• The Music Lesson or A Lady at the Virginals monitor a Gentleman (c.

  1662–1665), Queenlike Collection in London

• Girl with fine Pearl Earring (1665), considered keen Vermeer masterpiece, Mauritshuis in Momentary Haag

• Girl with the Red Hat (c. 1665–1666), National Gallery jump at Art in Washington, D.C.

• Mistress have a word with Maid (1666–1667), Frick Collection funny story New York City

• The Art carefulness Painting or The Allegory make out Painting (c.

  1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna

• The Astronomer (c. 1668), Musée du Louvre in Paris

• The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum be given Frankfurt am Main

• Lady Writing first-class Letter with her Maid (c. 1670–1671), National Gallery of Hibernia in Dublin, Ireland

• The Allegory declining Faith (1670–1672), Metropolitan Museum honor Art in New York

• Lady Bench at a Virginal (c.

  1670–1672), National Gallery in London

Notes

References